Loneliness is often linked to notions of isolation and a lack of social connection, with the experience of loneliness shaped by an individual’s needs,
references, and expectations (Barnes et al., 2022; Bergland et al., 2016; Cacioppo et al., 2014; Holt‑Lunstad, 2018). For example, some people place a positive value on spending time alone or solitude (Soysal & Bakalım, 2024), while others view solitude as isolation, which is often negatively valorised (Lu et al., 2022). The impact of isolation was highlighted during the COVID-19 pandemic, with global reports of increased loneliness during mandatory physical distancing (Ernst et al., 2022).