Ecological effects of strong winds on forests

Strong winds are a major natural disturbance affecting forest ecosystems globally. Windstorms, hurricanes, and cyclones kill some plants and animals but create opportunities for regrowth and succession. Wind damage depends on factors like wind speed, tree size and species, topography, and soil. At the tree level, winds cause defoliation, branch and stem breakage, and uprooting. At the stand level, winds open gaps in the canopy. Landscape effects include increased heterogeneity. Wind-caused litterfall spikes nutrient inputs. Forest recovery timescales vary by biome. Tropical forests rebound more quickly than temperate and boreal zones. Intermediate wind disturbances may maximize biodiversity. Climate change brings more extreme winds and slower-moving storms, interacting with stressors like habitat fragmentation. Forests may not recover their original state after severe winds. Managers must prepare for altered trajectories where composition and structure differ from pre-disturbance conditions.